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Human Reproduction, Vol. 14, No. suppl_2, pp. 26-36, 1999
© 1999 European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology

Immunological aspects of implantation and implantation failure

P.M. Johnson1, S.E. Christmas and G.S. Vince

Department of Immunology, University of Liverpool Duncan Building, Daulby Street, Liverpool L69 3GA, UK

Correspondence: 1To whom correspondence should be addressed

The human endometrium contains a significant proportion of leukocytes (8–35% of all cells), the absolute numbers and proportions varying during both the menstrual cycle and early in pregnancy. T cells, macrophages and a population of phenotypically unusual large granular lymphocytes (LGL) are commonly present, although B cells are absent. Relative T cell numbers decrease significantly in first trimester decidua, and hence are unlikely to play an important role in maintenance of human pregnancy, but T cells could be important in implantation where their relative numbers are greater. In addition to producing cytokines, local tissue macrophages may provide an immediate antigen non-specific host defence to infection. Most attention has, nevertheless, focused on a role for LGL in implantation and maintenance of pregnancy since, at the time of implantation, LGL comprise 70–80% of the total endometrial leukocyte population. Although endometrial LGL have been shown to express natural killer (NK) cell-type cytotoxicity against classical NK cell targets, such cytotoxicity against trophoblast is induced only after activation by interleukin (IL)-2. Selective expression of the unusual class I human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecule, HLA-G, by extravillous cytotrophoblast may assist in protecting invasive cytotrophoblast from potential maternal NK cell attack, probably via interactions with killer inhibitory receptor molecules on LGL. Many cytokines have been demonstrated to be expressed at the maternal–fetal interface although, currently, in mice only two (IL-11 and leukaemia inhibitory factor) appear to be absolutely essential for successful pregnancy outcome. Immune effector cells and cytokines may also play a role in human pregnancy pathologies, such as recurrent early pregnancy loss.

Key words: cytokines in pregnancy/decidual leukocytes/implantation/implantation failure/immunological aspects


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